Journal Description
Toxins
Toxins
is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal which provides an advanced forum for studies related to toxinology and all kinds of toxins (biotoxins) from animals, microbes and plants. Toxins is published monthly online by MDPI. The French Society on Toxinology (SFET), International Society for Mycotoxicology (ISM), Japanese Society of Mycotoxicology (JSMYCO) and European Uremic Toxins (EUTox) Work Group are affiliated with Toxins and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), PubMed, MEDLINE, PMC, Embase, CAPlus / SciFinder, AGRIS, and other databases.
- Journal Rank: JCR - Q1 (Toxicology) / CiteScore - Q1 (Toxicology)
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 18.4 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 3.2 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2023).
- Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
- Sections: published in 6 topical sections.
Impact Factor:
4.2 (2022);
5-Year Impact Factor:
4.7 (2022)
Latest Articles
Mechanism of Fumonisin Self-Resistance: Fusarium verticillioides Contains Four Fumonisin B1-Insensitive-Ceramide Synthases
Toxins 2024, 16(6), 235; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16060235 (registering DOI) - 22 May 2024
Abstract
Fusarium verticillioides produces fumonisins, which are mycotoxins inhibiting sphingolipid biosynthesis in humans, animals, and other eukaryotes. Fumonisins are presumed virulence factors of plant pathogens, but may also play a role in interactions between competing fungi. We observed higher resistance to added fumonisin B
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Fusarium verticillioides produces fumonisins, which are mycotoxins inhibiting sphingolipid biosynthesis in humans, animals, and other eukaryotes. Fumonisins are presumed virulence factors of plant pathogens, but may also play a role in interactions between competing fungi. We observed higher resistance to added fumonisin B1 (FB1) in fumonisin-producing Fusarium verticillioides than in nonproducing F. graminearum, and likewise between isolates of Aspergillus and Alternaria differing in production of sphinganine-analog toxins. It has been reported that in F. verticillioides, ceramide synthase encoded in the fumonisin biosynthetic gene cluster is responsible for self-resistance. We reinvestigated the role of FUM17 and FUM18 by generating a double mutant strain in a fum1 background. Nearly unchanged resistance to added FB1 was observed compared to the parental fum1 strain. A recently developed fumonisin-sensitive baker’s yeast strain allowed for the testing of candidate ceramide synthases by heterologous expression. The overexpression of the yeast LAC1 gene, but not LAG1, increased fumonisin resistance. High-level resistance was conferred by FUM18, but not by FUM17. Likewise, strong resistance to FB1 was caused by overexpression of the presumed F. verticillioides “housekeeping” ceramide synthases CER1, CER2, and CER3, located outside the fumonisin cluster, indicating that F. verticillioides possesses a redundant set of insensitive targets as a self-resistance mechanism.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Approaches in Mycotoxins Research: Detection, Prevention and Mode of Action)
Open AccessReview
Spider and Wasp Acylpolyamines: Venom Components and Versatile Pharmacological Leads, Probes, and Insecticidal Agents
by
Gandhi Rádis-Baptista and Katsuhiro Konno
Toxins 2024, 16(6), 234; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16060234 - 21 May 2024
Abstract
Polyamines (PAs) are polycationic biogenic amines ubiquitously present in all life forms and are involved in molecular signaling and interaction, determining cell fate (e.g., cell proliferation, dif-ferentiation, and apoptosis). The intricate balance in the PAs’ levels in the tissues will determine whether beneficial
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Polyamines (PAs) are polycationic biogenic amines ubiquitously present in all life forms and are involved in molecular signaling and interaction, determining cell fate (e.g., cell proliferation, dif-ferentiation, and apoptosis). The intricate balance in the PAs’ levels in the tissues will determine whether beneficial or detrimental effects will affect homeostasis. It’s crucial to note that endoge-nous polyamines, like spermine and spermidine, play a pivotal role in our understanding of neu-rological disorders as they interact with membrane receptors and ion channels, modulating neuro-transmission. In spiders and wasps, monoamines (histamine, dopamine, serotonin, tryptamine) and polyamines (spermine, spermidine, acyl polyamines) comprise, with peptides and other sub-stances, the low molecular weight fraction of the venom. Acylpolyamines are venom components exclusively from spiders and a species of solitary wasp, which cause inhibition chiefly of iono-tropic glutamate receptors (AMPA, NMDA, and KA iGluRs) and nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). The first venom acylpolyamines ever discovered (argiopines, Joro and Nephila toxins, and philanthotoxins) have provided templates for the design and synthesis of numerous analogs. Thus far, analogs with high potency exert their effect at nanomolar concentrations, with high se-lectivity toward their ionotropic and ligand receptors. These potent and selective acylpolyamine analogs can serve biomedical purposes and pest control management. The structural modification of acylpolyamine with photolabile and fluorescent groups converted these venom toxins into use-ful molecular probes to discriminate iGluRs and nAchRs in cell populations. In various cases, the linear polyamines, like spermine and spermidine, constituting venom acyl polyamine backbones, have served as cargoes to deliver active molecules via a polyamine uptake system on diseased cells for targeted therapy. In this review, we examined examples of biogenic amines that play an essential role in neural homeostasis and cell signaling, contributing to human health and disease outcomes, which can be present in the venom of arachnids and hymenopterans. With an empha-sis on the spider and wasp venom acylpolyamines, we focused on the origin, structure, derivatiza-tion, and biomedical and biotechnological application of these pharmacologically attractive, chemically modular venom components.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Animal Venoms)
Open AccessArticle
Borrelia burgdorferi 0755, a Novel Cytotoxin with Unknown Function in Lyme Disease
by
Sam T. Donta
Toxins 2024, 16(6), 233; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16060233 - 21 May 2024
Abstract
The pathophysiology of Lyme disease, especially in its persistent form, remains to be determined. As many of the neurologic symptoms are similar to those seen in other toxin-associated disorders, a hypothesis was generated that B. burgdorferi, the causative agent of Lyme disease,
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The pathophysiology of Lyme disease, especially in its persistent form, remains to be determined. As many of the neurologic symptoms are similar to those seen in other toxin-associated disorders, a hypothesis was generated that B. burgdorferi, the causative agent of Lyme disease, may produce a neurotoxin to account for some of the symptoms. Using primers against known conserved bacterial toxin groups, and PCR technology, a candidate neurotoxin was discovered. The purified protein was temporarily named BbTox, and was subsequently found to be identical to BB0755, a protein deduced from the genome sequence of B. burgdorferi that has been annotated as a Z ribonuclease. BbTox has cytotoxic activity against cells of neural origin in tissue culture. Its toxic activity appears to be directed against cytoskeletal elements, similar to that seen with toxins of Clostridioides difficile and Clostridioides botulinum, but differing from that of cholera and E. coli toxins, and other toxins. It remains to be determined whether BbTox has direct cytotoxic effects on neural or glial cells in vivo, or its activity is primarily that of a ribonuclease analogous to other bacterial ribonucleases that are involved in antibiotic tolerance remains to be determined.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Bacterial Toxins)
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Open AccessArticle
Glucose and Oxygen Levels Modulate the Pore-Forming Effects of Cholesterol-Dependent Cytolysin Pneumolysin from Streptococcus pneumoniae
by
Michelle Salomé Hoffet, Nikola S. Tomov, Sabrina Hupp, Timothy J. Mitchell and Asparouh I. Iliev
Toxins 2024, 16(6), 232; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16060232 - 21 May 2024
Abstract
A major Streptococcus pneumoniae pathogenic factor is the cholesterol-dependent cytolysin pneumolysin, binding membrane cholesterol and producing permanent lytic or transient pores. During brain infections, vascular damage with variable ischemia occurs. The role of ischemia on pneumolysin’s pore-forming capacity remains unknown. In acute brain
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A major Streptococcus pneumoniae pathogenic factor is the cholesterol-dependent cytolysin pneumolysin, binding membrane cholesterol and producing permanent lytic or transient pores. During brain infections, vascular damage with variable ischemia occurs. The role of ischemia on pneumolysin’s pore-forming capacity remains unknown. In acute brain slice cultures and primary cultured glia, we studied acute toxin lysis (via propidium iodide staining and LDH release) and transient pore formation (by analyzing increases in the intracellular calcium). We analyzed normal peripheral tissue glucose conditions (80 mg%), normal brain glucose levels (20 mg%), and brain hypoglycemic conditions (3 mg%), in combinations either with normoxia (8% oxygen) or hypoxia (2% oxygen). At 80 mg% glucose, hypoxia enhanced cytolysis via pneumolysin. At 20 mg% glucose, hypoxia did not affect cell lysis, but impaired calcium restoration after non-lytic pore formation. Only at 3 mg% glucose, during normoxia, did pneumolysin produce stronger lysis. In hypoglycemic (3 mg% glucose) conditions, pneumolysin caused a milder calcium increase, but restoration was missing. Microglia bound more pneumolysin than astrocytes and demonstrated generally stronger calcium elevation. Thus, our work demonstrated that the toxin pore-forming capacity in cells continuously diminishes when oxygen is reduced, overlapping with a continuously reduced ability of cells to maintain homeostasis of the calcium influx once oxygen and glucose are reduced.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Bacterial Toxins)
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Open AccessArticle
Monoclonal-Antibody-Based Immunoassays for the Mycotoxins NX-2 and NX-3 in Wheat
by
Chris M. Maragos, Martha M. Vaughan and Susan P. McCormick
Toxins 2024, 16(5), 231; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16050231 - 18 May 2024
Abstract
The fungal infestation of crops can cause major economic losses. Toxins produced by the causative fungi (mycotoxins) represent a potential safety hazard to people and livestock consuming them. One such mycotoxin is deoxynivalenol (DON, also known as vomitoxin), a trichothecene associated with Fusarium
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The fungal infestation of crops can cause major economic losses. Toxins produced by the causative fungi (mycotoxins) represent a potential safety hazard to people and livestock consuming them. One such mycotoxin is deoxynivalenol (DON, also known as vomitoxin), a trichothecene associated with Fusarium Head Blight of wheat. DON is commonly found in cereal crops worldwide. A group of trichothecene mycotoxins closely related to DON, the NX toxins, have been reported to occur in the northeastern United States and southern Canada. While many commercial immunoassays are available to detect DON, there are no rapid screening assays for the NX toxins. We describe the development and isolation of three monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) specific towards two NX toxins: NX-2 and NX-3. The mAbs did not recognize DON or several other closely related trichothecenes. One of the mAbs was selected for development of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for NX-2 and NX-3 in wheat. The dynamic ranges for the assay were 7.7 to 127 μg/kg for NX-2 and 59 μg/kg to 1540 μg/kg for NX-3 in wheat. Recoveries from spiked wheat averaged 84.4% for NX-2 and 99.3% for NX-3, with RSDs of 10.4% and 11.3%, respectively (n = 24). The results suggest that this assay can be used to screen for NX toxins in wheat at levels relevant to human food and animal feed safety.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Contamination, Detection and Risk Assessment of Mycotoxins)
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Open AccessArticle
Paralytic Shellfish Toxins in Mollusks from Galicia Analyzed by a Fast Refined AOAC 2005.06 Method: Toxicity, Toxin Profile, and Inter-Specific, Spatial, and Seasonal Variations
by
Juan Blanco, Juan Pablo Lamas, Fabiola Arévalo, Jorge Correa, Tamara Rodríguez-Cabo and Ángeles Moroño
Toxins 2024, 16(5), 230; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16050230 - 15 May 2024
Abstract
Paralytic shellfish poisoning is an important concern for mollusk fisheries, aquaculture, and public health. In Galicia, NW Iberian Peninsula, such toxicity has been monitored for a long time using mouse bioassay. Therefore, little information exists about the precise toxin analogues and their possible
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Paralytic shellfish poisoning is an important concern for mollusk fisheries, aquaculture, and public health. In Galicia, NW Iberian Peninsula, such toxicity has been monitored for a long time using mouse bioassay. Therefore, little information exists about the precise toxin analogues and their possible transformations in diverse mollusk species and environments. After the change in the European PSP reference method, a refinement of the Lawrence method was developed, achieving a 75% reduction in chromatogram run time. Since the beginning of 2021, when this refinement Lawrence method was accredited under the norm UNE-EN ISO/IEC 17025, it has been used in the area to determine the toxin profiles and to estimate PSP toxicity in more than 4500 samples. In this study, we have summarized three years of monitoring results, including interspecific, seasonal, and geographical variability of PSP toxicity and toxin profile. PSP was detected in more than half of the samples analyzed (55%), but only 4.4% of the determinations were above the EU regulatory limit. GTX1,4 was the pair of STX analogs that produced the highest toxicities, but GTX2,3 was found in most samples, mainly due to the reduction of GTX1,4 but also by the higher sensitivity of the method for this pair of analogs. STX seems to be mainly a product of biotransformation from GTX2,3. The studied species (twelve bivalves and one gastropod) accumulated and transformed PSP toxins to a different extent, with most of them showing similar profiles except for Spisula solida and Haliotis tuberculata. Two seasonal peaks of toxicity were found: one in spring-early summer and another in autumn, with slightly different toxin profiles during outbreaks in relation to the toxicity during valleys. In general, both the total toxicity and toxin profiles of the southernmost locations were different from those in the northern part of the Atlantic coast and the Cantabrian Sea, but this general pattern is modified by the PSP history of some specific locations.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Marine Toxins: Characterization, Analysis and Surveillance)
Open AccessArticle
Quantitative Analysis of Fungal Contamination of Different Herbal Medicines in China
by
Gang Wang, Mingyue Jiao, Junqiang Hu, Yiren Xun, Longyun Chen, Jianbo Qiu, Fang Ji, Yin-Won Lee, Jianrong Shi and Jianhong Xu
Toxins 2024, 16(5), 229; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16050229 - 15 May 2024
Abstract
Herbal medicines are widely used for clinical purposes worldwide. These herbs are susceptible to phytopathogenic fungal invasion during the culturing, harvesting, storage, and processing stages. The threat of fungal and mycotoxin contamination requires the evaluation of the health risks associated with these herbal
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Herbal medicines are widely used for clinical purposes worldwide. These herbs are susceptible to phytopathogenic fungal invasion during the culturing, harvesting, storage, and processing stages. The threat of fungal and mycotoxin contamination requires the evaluation of the health risks associated with these herbal medicines. In this study, we collected 138 samples of 23 commonly used herbs from 20 regions in China, from which we isolated a total of 200 phytopathogenic fungi. Through morphological observation and ITS sequencing, 173 fungal isolates were identified and classified into 24 genera, of which the predominant genera were Fusarium (27.74%) and Alternaria (20.81%), followed by Epicoccum (11.56%), Nigrospora (7.51%), and Trichocladium (6.84%). Quantitative analysis of the abundance of both Fusarium and Alternaria in herbal medicines via RT-qPCR revealed that the most abundant fungi were found on the herb Taraxacum mongolicum, reaching 300,000 copies/μL for Fusarium and 700 copies/μL for Alternaria. The in vitro mycotoxin productivities of the isolated Fusarium and Alternaria strains were evaluated by using liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), and it was found that the Fusarium species mainly produced the acetyl forms of deoxynivalenol, while Alternaria species mainly produced altertoxins. These findings revealed widely distributed fungal contamination in herbal medicines and thus raise concerns for the sake of the quality and safety of herbal medicines.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxigenic Fungi and Mycotoxins: From Toxin Biosynthesis to Toxicity Penetration)
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Open AccessSystematic Review
Botulinum Toxin for Axial Postural Abnormalities in Parkinson’s Disease: A Systematic Review
by
Marialuisa Gandolfi, Carlo Alberto Artusi, Gabriele Imbalzano, Serena Camozzi, Mauro Crestani, Leonardo Lopiano, Michele Tinazzi and Christian Geroin
Toxins 2024, 16(5), 228; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16050228 - 15 May 2024
Abstract
Axial postural abnormalities (APAs), characterized by their frequency, disabling nature, and resistance to pharmacological treatments, significantly impact Parkinson’s disease and atypical Parkinsonism patients. Despite advancements in diagnosing, assessing, and understanding their pathophysiology, managing these complications remains a significant challenge. Often underestimated by healthcare
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Axial postural abnormalities (APAs), characterized by their frequency, disabling nature, and resistance to pharmacological treatments, significantly impact Parkinson’s disease and atypical Parkinsonism patients. Despite advancements in diagnosing, assessing, and understanding their pathophysiology, managing these complications remains a significant challenge. Often underestimated by healthcare professionals, these disturbances can exacerbate disability. This systematic review assesses botulinum toxin treatments’ effectiveness, alone and with rehabilitation, in addressing APAs in Parkinson’s disease, utilizing MEDLINE (PubMed), Web of Science, and SCOPUS databases for source material. Of the 1087 records retrieved, 16 met the selection criteria. Most research has focused on botulinum toxin (BoNT) as the primary treatment for camptocormia and Pisa syndrome, utilizing mostly observational methods. Despite dose and injection site variations, a common strategy was using electromyography-guided injections, occasionally enhanced with ultrasound. Patients with Pisa syndrome notably saw consistent improvements in APAs and pain. However, studies on the combined effects of botulinum toxin and rehabilitation are limited, and antecollis is significantly under-researched. These findings recommend precise BoNT injections into hyperactive muscles in well-selected patients by skilled clinicians, avoiding compensatory muscles, and underscore the necessity of early rehabilitation. Rehabilitation is crucial in a multidisciplinary approach to managing APAs, highlighting the importance of a multidisciplinary team of experts.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Botulinum Toxins in Non-spastic and Neurodegenerative Disorders)
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Open AccessReview
A Historical Perspective on Uremia and Uremic Toxins
by
Björn Meijers, Ward Zadora and Jerome Lowenstein
Toxins 2024, 16(5), 227; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16050227 - 15 May 2024
Abstract
Uremia, also known as uremic syndrome, refers to the clinical symptoms in the final stage of renal failure. The definition of the term has changed over time due to an improved comprehension of the kidney’s function and the advancement of dialysis technology. Here,
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Uremia, also known as uremic syndrome, refers to the clinical symptoms in the final stage of renal failure. The definition of the term has changed over time due to an improved comprehension of the kidney’s function and the advancement of dialysis technology. Here, we aim to present an overview of the various concepts that have developed regarding uremia throughout the years. We provide a comprehensive review of the historical progression starting from the early days of Kolff and his predecessors, continuing with the initial research conducted by Niwa et al., and culminating in the remote sensing hypothesis of Nigam. Additionally, we explore the subsequent investigation into the function of these toxins as signaling molecules in various somatic cells.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxins: 15th Anniversary)
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Open AccessArticle
Exposure to a Combination of Fusarium Mycotoxins Leads to Lipid Peroxidation and Influences Antioxidant Defenses, Fatty Acid Composition of Phospholipids, and Renal Histology in Laying Hens
by
Szabina Kulcsár, Janka Turbók, György Kövér, Krisztián Balogh, Erika Zándoki, Omeralfaroug Ali, András Szabó and Miklós Mézes
Toxins 2024, 16(5), 226; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16050226 - 13 May 2024
Abstract
The effects of combined short-term (3 days) exposure to Fusarium mycotoxins at both the EU recommended limit (T-2/HT-2 toxin: 0.25 mg/kg; DON/3-AcDON/15-AcDON: 5 mg/kg; FB1: 20 mg/kg) and twice the dose (T-2/HT-2 toxin: 0.5 mg/kg, DON/3-AcDON/15-AcDON: 10 mg/kg, and FB1
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The effects of combined short-term (3 days) exposure to Fusarium mycotoxins at both the EU recommended limit (T-2/HT-2 toxin: 0.25 mg/kg; DON/3-AcDON/15-AcDON: 5 mg/kg; FB1: 20 mg/kg) and twice the dose (T-2/HT-2 toxin: 0.5 mg/kg, DON/3-AcDON/15-AcDON: 10 mg/kg, and FB1: 40 mg/kg feed) on the kidneys of laying hens were examined. Our study aimed to investigate how these mycotoxins interacted with membrane lipid fatty acid (FA) composition and lipid peroxidation processes. It was observed that the levels of conjugated dienes and trienes were higher than the control in the low-mix group on day 3, and malondialdehyde concentration was higher on days 2 and 3. The proportion of phospholipid (PL) FAs showed that saturated and monounsaturated FAs increased. Still, both n3 and n6 polyunsaturated FAs decreased significantly on day 2 of exposure in the high-mix group. Among the n3 FAs, the level of docosahexaenoic (C22:6 n3) and among n6 FAs, arachidonic (C20:4 n6) acids decreased mainly on day 2 in the high-mix group. The results suggest that the combined exposure to Fusarium mycotoxins induced lipid peroxidation in the kidneys of laying hens, which resulted in marked changes in the PL FA profile. Histological examination revealed time- and dose-dependent increases as consequences of mycotoxin exposure.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Mycotoxins)
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Open AccessArticle
Intramuscular Botulinum Neurotoxin Serotypes E and A Elicit Distinct Effects on SNAP25 Protein Fragments, Muscular Histology, Spread and Neuronal Transport: An Integrated Histology-Based Study in the Rat
by
Vincent Martin, Denis Carre, Heloise Bilbault, Sebastien Oster, Lorenzo Limana, Florian Sebal, Christine Favre-Guilmard, Mikhail Kalinichev, Christian Leveque, Virginie Boulifard, Catherine George and Stephane Lezmi
Toxins 2024, 16(5), 225; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16050225 - 12 May 2024
Abstract
Botulinum neurotoxins E (BoNT/E) and A (BoNT/A) act by cleaving Synaptosome-Associated Protein 25 (SNAP25) at two different C-terminal sites, but they display very distinct durations of action, BoNT/E being short acting and BoNT/A long acting. We investigated the duration of action, spread and
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Botulinum neurotoxins E (BoNT/E) and A (BoNT/A) act by cleaving Synaptosome-Associated Protein 25 (SNAP25) at two different C-terminal sites, but they display very distinct durations of action, BoNT/E being short acting and BoNT/A long acting. We investigated the duration of action, spread and neuronal transport of BoNT/E (6.5 ng/kg) and BoNT/A (125 pg/kg) after single intramuscular administrations of high equivalent efficacious doses, in rats, over a 30- or 75-day periods, respectively. To achieve this, we used (i) digit abduction score assay, (ii) immunohistochemistry for SNAP25 (N-ter part; SNAP25N-ter and C-ter part; SNAP25C-ter) and its cleavage sites (cleaved SNAP25; c-SNAP25E and c-SNAP25A) and (iii) muscular changes in histopathology evaluation. Combined in vivo observation and immunohistochemistry analysis revealed that, compared to BoNT/A, BoNT/E induces minimal muscular changes, possesses a lower duration of action, a reduced ability to spread and a decreased capacity to be transported to the lumbar spinal cord. Interestingly, SNAP25C-ter completely disappeared for both toxins during the peak of efficacy, suggesting that the persistence of toxin effects is driven by the persistence of proteases in tissues. These data unveil some new molecular mechanisms of action of the short-acting BoNT/E and long-acting BoNT/A, and reinforce their overall safety profiles.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Bacterial Toxins)
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Open AccessArticle
Unveiling Novel Kunitz- and Waprin-Type Toxins in the Micrurus mipartitus Coral Snake Venom Gland: An In Silico Transcriptome Analysis
by
Mónica Saldarriaga-Córdoba, Claudia Clavero-León, Paola Rey-Suarez, Vitelbina Nuñez-Rangel, Ruben Avendaño-Herrera, Stefany Solano-González and Juan F. Alzate
Toxins 2024, 16(5), 224; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16050224 - 11 May 2024
Abstract
Kunitz-type peptide expression has been described in the venom of snakes of the Viperidae, Elapidae and Colubridae families. This work aimed to identify these peptides in the venom gland transcriptome of the coral snake Micrurus mipartitus. Transcriptomic analysis revealed a high diversity
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Kunitz-type peptide expression has been described in the venom of snakes of the Viperidae, Elapidae and Colubridae families. This work aimed to identify these peptides in the venom gland transcriptome of the coral snake Micrurus mipartitus. Transcriptomic analysis revealed a high diversity of venom-associated Kunitz serine protease inhibitor proteins (KSPIs). A total of eight copies of KSPIs were predicted and grouped into four distinctive types, including short KSPI, long KSPI, Kunitz–Waprin (Ku-WAP) proteins, and a multi-domain Kunitz-type protein. From these, one short KSPI showed high identity with Micrurus tener and Austrelaps superbus. The long KSPI group exhibited similarity within the Micrurus genus and showed homology with various elapid snakes and even with the colubrid Pantherophis guttatus. A third group suggested the presence of Kunitz domains in addition to a whey-acidic-protein-type four-disulfide core domain. Finally, the fourth group corresponded to a transcript copy with a putative 511 amino acid protein, formerly annotated as KSPI, which UniProt classified as SPINT1. In conclusion, this study showed the diversity of Kunitz-type proteins expressed in the venom gland transcriptome of M. mipartitus.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transcriptomic and Proteomic Study on Animal Venom: Looking Forward)
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Open AccessArticle
Alternariol Monomethyl-Ether Induces Toxicity via Cell Death and Oxidative Stress in Swine Intestinal Epithelial Cells
by
Daniela Eliza Marin, Valeria Cristina Bulgaru, AnaMaria Pertea, Iulian Alexandru Grosu, Gina Cecilia Pistol and Ionelia Taranu
Toxins 2024, 16(5), 223; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16050223 - 11 May 2024
Abstract
Alternariol monomethyl-ether (AME), together with altenuene and alternariol, belongs to the Alternaria mycotoxins group, which can contaminate different substrates, including cereals. The aim of the present study was to obtain a deeper understanding concerning the effects of AME on pig intestinal health using
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Alternariol monomethyl-ether (AME), together with altenuene and alternariol, belongs to the Alternaria mycotoxins group, which can contaminate different substrates, including cereals. The aim of the present study was to obtain a deeper understanding concerning the effects of AME on pig intestinal health using epithelial intestinal cell lines as the data concerning the possible effects of Alternaria toxins on swine are scarce and insufficient for assessing the risk represented by Alternaria toxins for animal health. Our results have shown a dose-related effect on IPEC-1 cell viability, with an IC50 value of 10.5 μM. Exposure to the toxin induced an increase in total apoptotic cells, suggesting that AME induces programmed cell death through apoptosis based on caspase-3/7 activation in IPEC-1 cells. DNA and protein oxidative damage triggered by AME were associated with an alteration of the antioxidant response, as shown by a decrease in the enzymatic activity of catalase and superoxide dismutase. These effects on the oxidative response can be related to an inhibition of the Akt/Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway; however, further studies are needed in order to validate these in vitro data using in vivo trials in swine.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Mycotoxins)
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Open AccessArticle
Pulmonary Thromboembolism following Russell’s Viper Bites
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Subramanian Senthilkumaran, Sasikumar Sampath, José R. Almeida, Jarred Williams, Harry F. Williams, Ketan Patel, Ponniah Thirumalaikolundusubramanian and Sakthivel Vaiyapuri
Toxins 2024, 16(5), 222; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16050222 - 11 May 2024
Abstract
Snakebite envenoming and its resulting complications are serious threats to the health of vulnerable people living in rural areas of developing countries. The knowledge of the heterogeneity of symptoms associated with snakebite envenoming and their management strategies is vital to treat such life-threatening
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Snakebite envenoming and its resulting complications are serious threats to the health of vulnerable people living in rural areas of developing countries. The knowledge of the heterogeneity of symptoms associated with snakebite envenoming and their management strategies is vital to treat such life-threatening complications to save lives. Russell’s viper envenomation induces a diverse range of clinical manifestations from commonly recognised haemotoxic and local effects to several rare conditions that are often not reported. The lack of awareness about these unusual manifestations can affect prompt diagnosis, appropriate therapeutic approaches, and positive outcomes for patients. Here, we report pulmonary thromboembolism that developed in three patients following Russell’s viper envenomation and demonstrate their common clinical features and diagnostic and therapeutic approaches used. All patients showed clinical signs of local (oedema) and systemic (blood coagulation disturbances) envenomation, which were treated using polyvalent antivenom. They exhibited elevated heart rates, breathlessness, and reduced oxygen saturation, which are non-specific but core parameters in the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism. The recognition of pulmonary embolism was also achieved by an electrocardiogram, which showed sinus tachycardia and computed tomography and echocardiogram scans further confirmed this condition. Anti-coagulant treatment using low-molecular-weight heparin offered clinical benefits in these patients. In summary, this report reinforces the broad spectrum of previously unreported consequences of Russell’s viper envenomation. The constant updating of healthcare professionals and the dissemination of major lessons learned in the clinical management of snakebite envenoming through scientific documentation and educational programs are necessary to mitigate the adverse impacts of venomous snakebites in vulnerable communities.
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(This article belongs to the Section Animal Venoms)
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Open AccessArticle
Effectiveness and Safety of OnabotulinumtoxinA in Adolescent Patients with Chronic Migraine
by
Laura Gómez-Dabó, Edoardo Caronna, Rut Mas-de-les-Valls, Víctor J. Gallardo, Alicia Alpuente, Marta Torres-Ferrus and Patricia Pozo-Rosich
Toxins 2024, 16(5), 221; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16050221 - 11 May 2024
Abstract
Chronic migraine (CM) significantly affects underage individuals. The study objectives are (1) to analyze the effectiveness and safety of onabotulinumtoxinA (BTX-A) in adolescents with CM; (2) to review the literature on BTX-A use in the pediatric population. This prospective observational study included patients
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Chronic migraine (CM) significantly affects underage individuals. The study objectives are (1) to analyze the effectiveness and safety of onabotulinumtoxinA (BTX-A) in adolescents with CM; (2) to review the literature on BTX-A use in the pediatric population. This prospective observational study included patients under 18 years old with CM treated with BTX-A (PREEMPT protocol) as compassionate use. Demographic, efficacy (monthly headache days—MHD; monthly migraine days—MMD; acute medication days/month—AMDM) and side effect data were collected. A ≥ 50% reduction in MHD was considered as a response. Effectiveness and safety were analyzed at 6 and 12 months. A systematic review of the use of BTX-A in children/adolescents was conducted in July 2023. In total, 20 patients were included (median age 15 years [14.75–17], 70% (14/20) females). The median basal frequencies were 28.8 [20–28] MHD, 18 [10–28] MMD and 10 [7.5–21.2] AMDM. Compared with baseline, at 6 months (n = 20), 11 patients (55%) were responders, with a median reduction in MHD of −20 days/month (p = 0.001). At 12 months (n = 14), eight patients (57.1%) were responders, with a median reduction in MHD of −17.5 days/month (p = 0.002). No adverse effects were reported. The literature search showed similar results. Our data supports the concept that BTX-A is effective, well tolerated, and safe in adolescents with CM resistant to oral preventatives.
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(This article belongs to the Section Bacterial Toxins)
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Open AccessEditorial
Therapeutic Uses and Efficacy of Botulinum Toxin in Orofacial Medicine: A Dental Perspective
by
Kazuya Yoshida and Merete Bakke
Toxins 2024, 16(5), 220; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16050220 - 10 May 2024
Abstract
Botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) is the exotoxin of Clostridium botulinum, a Gram-positive, spore-forming bacterium [...]
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Therapeutic Uses and Efficacy of Botulinum Toxin in Orofacial Medicine: From the Standpoint of Dental Professionals)
Open AccessArticle
Mutational Analysis of RIP Type I Dianthin-30 Suggests a Role for Arg24 in Endocytosis
by
Louisa Schlaak, Christoph Weise, Benno Kuropka and Alexander Weng
Toxins 2024, 16(5), 219; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16050219 - 10 May 2024
Abstract
Saponin-mediated endosomal escape is a mechanism that increases the cytotoxicity of type I ribosome-inactivating proteins (type I RIPs). In order to actualize their cytotoxicity, type I RIPs must be released into the cytosol after endocytosis. Without release from the endosomes, type I RIPs
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Saponin-mediated endosomal escape is a mechanism that increases the cytotoxicity of type I ribosome-inactivating proteins (type I RIPs). In order to actualize their cytotoxicity, type I RIPs must be released into the cytosol after endocytosis. Without release from the endosomes, type I RIPs are largely degraded and cannot exert their cytotoxic effects. Certain triterpene saponins are able to induce the endosomal escape of these type I RIPs, thus increasing their cytotoxicity. However, the molecular mechanism underlying the endosomal escape enhancement of type I RIPs by triterpene saponins has not been fully elucidated. In this report, we investigate the involvement of the basic amino acid residues of dianthin-30, a type I RIP isolated from the plant Dianthus caryophyllus L., in endosomal escape enhancement using alanine scanning. Therefore, we designed 19 alanine mutants of dianthin-30. Each mutant was combined with SO1861, a triterpene saponin isolated from the roots of Saponaria officinalis L., and subjected to a cytotoxicity screening in Neuro-2A cells. Cytotoxic screening revealed that dianthin-30 mutants with lysine substitutions did not impair the endosomal escape enhancement. There was one particular mutant dianthin, Arg24Ala, that exhibited significantly reduced synergistic cytotoxicity in three mammalian cell lines. However, this reduction was not based on an altered interaction with SO1861. It was, rather, due to the impaired endocytosis of dianthin Arg24Ala into the cells.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biological Activities of Ribosome Inactivating Proteins II)
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Monitoring Mycotoxin Exposure in Food-Producing Animals (Cattle, Pig, Poultry, and Sheep)
by
Borja Muñoz-Solano, Elena Lizarraga Pérez and Elena González-Peñas
Toxins 2024, 16(5), 218; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16050218 - 9 May 2024
Abstract
Food-producing animals are exposed to mycotoxins through ingestion, inhalation, or dermal contact with contaminated materials. This exposure can lead to serious consequences for animal health, affects the cost and quality of livestock production, and can even impact human health through foods of animal
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Food-producing animals are exposed to mycotoxins through ingestion, inhalation, or dermal contact with contaminated materials. This exposure can lead to serious consequences for animal health, affects the cost and quality of livestock production, and can even impact human health through foods of animal origin. Therefore, controlling mycotoxin exposure in animals is of utmost importance. A systematic literature search was conducted in this study to retrieve the results of monitoring exposure to mycotoxins in food-producing animals over the last five years (2019–2023), considering both external exposure (analysis of feed) and internal exposure (analysis of biomarkers in biological matrices). The most commonly used analytical technique for both approaches is LC-MS/MS due to its capability for multidetection. Several mycotoxins, especially those that are regulated (ochratoxin A, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, aflatoxins, fumonisins, T-2, and HT-2), along with some emerging mycotoxins (sterigmatocystin, nivalenol, beauvericin, enniantins among others), were studied in 13,818 feed samples worldwide and were typically detected at low levels, although they occasionally exceeded regulatory levels. The occurrence of multiple exposure is widespread. Regarding animal biomonitoring, the primary objective of the studies retrieved was to study mycotoxin metabolism after toxin administration. Some compounds have been suggested as biomarkers of exposure in the plasma, urine, and feces of animal species such as pigs and poultry. However, further research is required, including many other mycotoxins and animal species, such as cattle and sheep.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins: Risk Assessment, Biomonitoring and Toxicology)
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Open AccessArticle
Chitin Deacetylase Homologous Gene cda Contributes to Development and Aflatoxin Synthesis in Aspergillus flavus
by
Xin Zhang, Meifang Wen, Guoqi Li and Shihua Wang
Toxins 2024, 16(5), 217; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16050217 - 9 May 2024
Abstract
The fungal cell wall serves as the primary interface between fungi and their external environment, providing protection and facilitating interactions with the surroundings. Chitin is a vital structural element in fungal cell wall. Chitin deacetylase (CDA) can transform chitin into chitosan through deacetylation,
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The fungal cell wall serves as the primary interface between fungi and their external environment, providing protection and facilitating interactions with the surroundings. Chitin is a vital structural element in fungal cell wall. Chitin deacetylase (CDA) can transform chitin into chitosan through deacetylation, providing various biological functions across fungal species. Although this modification is widespread in fungi, the biological functions of CDA enzymes in Aspergillus flavus remain largely unexplored. In this study, we aimed to investigate the biofunctions of the CDA family in A. flavus. The A. flavus genome contains six annotated putative chitin deacetylases. We constructed knockout strains targeting each member of the CDA family, including Δcda1, Δcda2, Δcda3, Δcda4, Δcda5, and Δcda6. Functional analyses revealed that the deletion of CDA family members neither significantly affects the chitin content nor exhibits the expected chitin deacetylation function in A. flavus. However, the Δcda6 strain displayed distinct phenotypic characteristics compared to the wild-type (WT), including an increased conidia count, decreased mycelium production, heightened aflatoxin production, and impaired seed colonization. Subcellular localization experiments indicated the cellular localization of CDA6 protein within the cell wall of A. flavus filaments. Moreover, our findings highlight the significance of the CBD1 and CBD2 structural domains in mediating the functional role of the CDA6 protein. Overall, we analyzed the gene functions of CDA family in A. flavus, which contribute to a deeper understanding of the mechanisms underlying aflatoxin contamination and lay the groundwork for potential biocontrol strategies targeting A. flavus.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aspergillus flavus and Aflatoxins (Volume III))
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Open AccessCommunication
Mindfulness in Facilitating Pelvic Floor Botulinum Toxin Injection in Women with Chronic Pelvic Pain
by
Jacqueline V. Aredo, Hannah K. Tandon, Samin Panahi, Vy T. Phan, Rezvan Ameli, Barbara I. Karp and Pamela Stratton
Toxins 2024, 16(5), 216; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16050216 - 9 May 2024
Abstract
Botulinum toxin (BoNT) injection can safely be done as an office-based procedure, but can be painful itself, especially when injecting pelvic floor muscles to treat chronic pelvic pain (CPP). Mindfulness interventions may reduce procedure-associated acute anxiety and pain. We applied mindfulness techniques to
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Botulinum toxin (BoNT) injection can safely be done as an office-based procedure, but can be painful itself, especially when injecting pelvic floor muscles to treat chronic pelvic pain (CPP). Mindfulness interventions may reduce procedure-associated acute anxiety and pain. We applied mindfulness techniques to increase the tolerability of office-based pelvic floor BoNT injections in women with CPP. Women enrolled in a clinical trial of BoNT for endometriosis-associated CPP were offered a brief, guided mindfulness session before and/or after transvaginal injection. Anxiety, pain, and dysphoria were rated on a 0–10 numerical rating scale (NRS) before and after each mindfulness session. Eight women underwent mindfulness sessions. Five participants had a session before and two after the transvaginal injection. One participant had two sessions: one before and one after separate injections. All six women completing a session prior to injection had at least moderate anxiety, which lessened after the mindfulness session (median NRS change: −3.3/10). All three women reporting injection-associated pain experienced less intense pain following the post-injection session (median NRS change: −3/10). Three women experiencing dysphoria improved after the session (median NRS change: −3/10). A brief, guided mindfulness session may lessen acute pain, anxiety, and dysphoria associated with office-based transvaginal BoNT injection.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Uses of Botulinum Toxin Injection in Medicine)
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