Journal Description
Water
Water
is a peer-reviewed, open access journal on water science and technology, including the ecology and management of water resources, and is published semimonthly online by MDPI. Water collaborates with the International Conference on Flood Management (ICFM) and Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI). In addition, the American Institute of Hydrology (AIH), The Polish Limnological Society (PLS) and Japanese Society of Physical Hydrology (JSPH) are affiliated with Water and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Ei Compendex, GEOBASE, GeoRef, PubAg, AGRIS, CAPlus / SciFinder, Inspec, and other databases.
- Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Water Resources) / CiteScore - Q1 (Geography, Planning and Development)
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 16.5 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.9 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2023).
- Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
- Companion journals for Water include: GeoHazards and Hydrobiology.
Impact Factor:
3.4 (2022);
5-Year Impact Factor:
3.5 (2022)
Latest Articles
Variations in Greenhouse Gas Fluxes at the Water–Gas Interface in the Three Gorges Reservoir Caused by Hydrologic Management: Implications for Carbon Cycling
Water 2024, 16(12), 1642; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16121642 - 7 Jun 2024
Abstract
The Three Gorges Project is the largest hydraulic hub project in the world, and its hydrological management has altered the hydrological environment of the reservoir area, affecting the carbon emission and absorption of the reservoir water. In this study, representative hydrological stations in
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The Three Gorges Project is the largest hydraulic hub project in the world, and its hydrological management has altered the hydrological environment of the reservoir area, affecting the carbon emission and absorption of the reservoir water. In this study, representative hydrological stations in the Three Gorges Reservoir area were selected as research sites to monitor the CO2 and CH4 fluxes of the reservoir water and nine environmental factors during the drainage and impoundment periods in 2022. The study aimed to explore the mechanisms of hydrological management and environmental factors on greenhouse gas emissions. The results showed that the mean CO2 fluxes of the reservoir water during the drainage and impoundment periods were (103.82 ± 284.86) mmol·m−2·d−1 and (134.39 ± 62.41) mmol·m−2·d−1, respectively, while the mean CH4 fluxes were (1.013 ± 0.58) mmol·m−2·d−1 and (0.571 ± 0.70) mmol·m−2·d−1, respectively, indicating an overall “carbon source” characteristic. Through the evaluation of the characteristic importance of environmental factors, it was found that the main controlling factors of CO2 flux during the drainage period were total phosphorus (TP) and chlorophyll a (Chl_a), while total nitrogen (TN) was the main controlling factor during the impoundment period. Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) was the main controlling factor of CH4 flux during the different periods. Based on these findings, a “source-sink” mechanism of CO2 and CH4 in the Three Gorges Reservoir water under reservoir regulation was proposed. This study is of great significance for revealing the impact of reservoir construction on global ecosystem carbon cycling and providing scientific support for formulating “emission reduction and carbon sequestration” plans and achieving “dual carbon” goals.
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(This article belongs to the Section Water and Climate Change)
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Open AccessArticle
Experimental Study on the Hydraulic Performance of the Horizontal Main Drain of Building Drainage Systems Affected by Surfactants Sodium Dodecyl Benzene Sulfonate and Alkyl Ethoxylate-9
by
Shengjie Hu, Ping Xu and Bin Fu
Water 2024, 16(12), 1641; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16121641 - 7 Jun 2024
Abstract
Surfactants play a pivotal role in daily life owing to their commendable performance. The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic notably escalated surfactant usage. Upon entering building drainage systems with wastewater, surfactants profoundly influence hydraulic performance, an aspect that has garnered limited scholarly attention.
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Surfactants play a pivotal role in daily life owing to their commendable performance. The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic notably escalated surfactant usage. Upon entering building drainage systems with wastewater, surfactants profoundly influence hydraulic performance, an aspect that has garnered limited scholarly attention. This study employs an equally proportioned drainage test device to meticulously examine the variances in physical properties between surfactants, such as sodium dodecyl benzene sulfonate (SDBS) and alkyl ethoxylate-9 (AEO-9), and their repercussions on the hydraulic dynamics of building drainage horizontal main drains. Our findings reveal that the introduction of surfactants leads to the following: (1) an augmentation in water velocity and deposition distances of the solid simulant in the building drainage horizontal main drain with concentrations exacerbating this effect. The deposition distance of the solid simulation surged by up to 527% under experimental conditions compared to no surfactant; (2) there was a suppression of hydraulic jump and full degree of the horizontal main drain, with the concentration amplifying this suppression; and (3) an exacerbation of positive pressure in the horizontal main drain was found with increasing concentration, reaching a staggering 235.3% elevation compared to no surfactant. Moreover, SBDS foam outperformed AEO-9, demonstrating a 17.70–36.04% higher positive pressure in the horizontal main pipes. SBDS exhibits lower starting and ultimate viscosity, along with smaller colloid particle sizes, resulting in a 0.9–2.0% reduction in hydraulic jump and full degree. However, its inferior drag-reduction capability leads to a 17.48–36.44% decrease in the final deposition distances of solid simulant in the building drainage horizontal main drain compared to AEO-9.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydraulics and Hydrodynamics in Fluid Machinery)
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Open AccessReview
An Extensive Analysis of Combined Processes for Landfill Leachate Treatment
by
Ahmad Jamrah, Tharaa M. AL-Zghoul and Zakaria Al-Qodah
Water 2024, 16(12), 1640; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16121640 - 7 Jun 2024
Abstract
Sanitary landfilling is the predominant process for solid urban waste disposal, but it generates leachate that poses environmental, economic, and social concerns. Landfill leachate (LL) contains complex and refractory pollutants and toxic compounds that can vary depending on landfill maturity, age, and biochemical
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Sanitary landfilling is the predominant process for solid urban waste disposal, but it generates leachate that poses environmental, economic, and social concerns. Landfill leachate (LL) contains complex and refractory pollutants and toxic compounds that can vary depending on landfill maturity, age, and biochemical reactions, making its treatment challenging. Due to its unique characteristics and occurrence in remote locations, LL requires separate treatment from wastewater. Various conventional treatment processes involving biological, chemical, and physical processes have been used for LL treatment, but a single treatment process is insufficient to meet environmental standards. This review demonstrates that combined treatment processes are more effective and efficient for LL treatment compared to single processes. Among the various combinations, chemical–chemical and chemical–biological treatments are the most commonly used. Specifically, the integration of Fenton with adsorption and a membrane bioreactor (MBR) with nanofiltration (NF) processes shows promising results. The combined processes of MBR with NF, Fenton with adsorption, and PF with biological treatment show maximum removal efficiencies for COD, reaching 99 ± 1%, 99%, 98%, and 97%, respectively. Additionally, the combined Fenton with adsorption process and EC with SPF process enhance biodegradability as indicated by increased BOD5/COD ratios, from 0.084 to 0.82 and 0.35 to 0.75, respectively. The findings emphasize the importance of developing and implementing enhanced combined treatment processes for LL, with the aim of achieving efficient and comprehensive pollutant mineralization. Such processes have the potential to address the environmental concerns associated with LL and contribute to sustainable waste management practices.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water, Wastewater and Waste Management for Sustainable Development)
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Open AccessReview
Recent Advances in Ball-Milled Materials and Their Applications for Adsorptive Removal of Aqueous Pollutants
by
Pei Gao, Xuanhao Fan, Da Sun, Guoming Zeng, Quanfeng Wang and Qihui Wang
Water 2024, 16(12), 1639; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16121639 - 7 Jun 2024
Abstract
Ball milling, as a cost-effective and eco-friendly approach, has been popular in materials synthesis to solve problems involving toxic reagents, high temperatures, or high pressure, which has the potential for large-scale production. However, there are few reviews specifically concentrating on the latest progress
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Ball milling, as a cost-effective and eco-friendly approach, has been popular in materials synthesis to solve problems involving toxic reagents, high temperatures, or high pressure, which has the potential for large-scale production. However, there are few reviews specifically concentrating on the latest progress in materials characteristics before and after ball milling as well as the adsorptive application for aqueous pollutants. Hence, this paper summarized the principle and classification of ball milling and reviewed the advances of mechanochemical materials in categories as well as their adsorption performance of organic and inorganic pollutants. Ball milling has the capacity to change materials’ crystal structure, specific surface areas, pore volumes, and particle sizes and even promote grafting reactions to obtain functional groups to surfaces. This improved the adsorption amount, changed the equilibrium time, and strengthened the adsorption force for contaminants. Most studies showed that the Langmuir model and pseudo-second-order model fitted experimental data well. The regeneration methods include ball milling and thermal and solvent methods. The potential future developments in this field were also proposed. This work tries to review the latest advances in ball-milled materials and their application for pollutant adsorption and provides a comprehensive understanding of the physicochemical properties of materials before and after ball milling, as well as their effects on pollutants’ adsorption behavior. This is conducive to laying a foundation for further research on water decontamination by ball-milled materials.
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(This article belongs to the Topic Sustainable Technologies for Water Purification)
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Open AccessArticle
Dynamic Hazard Assessment of Rainfall-Induced Landslides Using Gradient Boosting Decision Tree with Google Earth Engine in Three Gorges Reservoir Area, China
by
Ke Yang, Ruiqing Niu, Yingxu Song, Jiahui Dong, Huaidan Zhang and Jie Chen
Water 2024, 16(12), 1638; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16121638 - 7 Jun 2024
Abstract
Rainfall-induced landslides are a major hazard in the Three Gorges Reservoir area (TGRA) of China, encompassing 19 districts and counties with extensive coverage and significant spatial variation in terrain. This study introduces the Gradient Boosting Decision Tree (GBDT) model, implemented on the Google
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Rainfall-induced landslides are a major hazard in the Three Gorges Reservoir area (TGRA) of China, encompassing 19 districts and counties with extensive coverage and significant spatial variation in terrain. This study introduces the Gradient Boosting Decision Tree (GBDT) model, implemented on the Google Earth Engine (GEE) cloud platform, to dynamically assess landslide risks within the TGRA. Utilizing the GBDT model for landslide susceptibility analysis, the results show high accuracy with a prediction precision of 86.2% and a recall rate of 95.7%. Furthermore, leveraging GEE’s powerful computational capabilities and real-time updated rainfall data, we dynamically mapped landslide hazards across the TGRA. The integration of the GBDT with GEE enabled near-real-time processing of remote sensing and meteorological radar data from the significant “8–31” 2014 rainstorm event, achieving dynamic and accurate hazard assessments. This study provides a scalable solution applicable globally to similar regions, making a significant contribution to the field of geohazard analysis by improving real-time landslide hazard assessment and mitigation strategies.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rainfall-Induced Landslides: Influencing, Modelling and Hazard Assessment)
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Open AccessArticle
Employing Tank Constraints to Present Total Cost and Water Age Trade-Offs in Optimal Operation of Water Distribution Systems
by
Tomer Shmaya and Avi Ostfeld
Water 2024, 16(12), 1637; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16121637 - 7 Jun 2024
Abstract
Water distribution systems (WDSs) are massive infrastructure systems designed to supply water from sources to consumers. The optimal operation problem of WDSs is the problem of determining pump and tank operation to meet the consumers’ demands with minimal operating cost, under different constraints,
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Water distribution systems (WDSs) are massive infrastructure systems designed to supply water from sources to consumers. The optimal operation problem of WDSs is the problem of determining pump and tank operation to meet the consumers’ demands with minimal operating cost, under different constraints, which often include hydraulic feasibility, pressure boundaries, and water quality standards. The water quality aspect of WDSs’ operation poses significant challenges due to its complex mathematical nature. Determined by mixing in the systems’ nodes, it is affected by flow directions, which are subject to change based on the hydraulic state of the system and are therefore difficult to either predict, control, or be included in an analytical model used for optimization. Water age, which is defined as the time water travels in the system until reaching the consumer, is often used as a general water quality indicator—high values of water age imply low water quality, whereas low values of water age usually mean fresher, cleaner, and safer water. In this work, we present the effects that tank operation has on water age. As tanks contain large amounts of water for long periods of time, water tends to age there significantly, which translates into older water being supplied to consumers. By constraining the tank operation, we aim to present the trade-off between water age, tank operation, and operational cost in the WDS optimal operation problem and provide an operational tool that could assist system operators to decide how to operate their system, based on their budget and desired water age boundary. The analysis is applied to three case studies that vary in size and complexity, using MATLAB version R2021b and EPANET 2.2. The presented results show an ability to mitigate high water age in water networks through tank constraints, which varies in accordance with the system’s complexity and tank dominance in supply. The importance of a visual tool that serves as a guide for operators to tackle the complex problem of controlling water age is demonstrated as well.
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(This article belongs to the Section Water Resources Management, Policy and Governance)
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Open AccessArticle
Hydrochemistry and Stable Isotopes for the Investigation of Water Movement in Bioretention Column Experiments
by
Yifan Yang, Xiang Zhang, Chao Wang, Lei Chen, Jinhan Cai and Jingyi Wang
Water 2024, 16(12), 1636; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16121636 - 7 Jun 2024
Abstract
Bioretention can be an efficient measure of stormwater treatment. The bioretention system has been globally adapted for controlling rainfall-runoff volume and removing pollutants. However, there is a lack of systematic analysis of some hydrological processes in the bioretention facility, such as the transportation
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Bioretention can be an efficient measure of stormwater treatment. The bioretention system has been globally adapted for controlling rainfall-runoff volume and removing pollutants. However, there is a lack of systematic analysis of some hydrological processes in the bioretention facility, such as the transportation of rainfall-runoff (event water) and soil water (pre-event water). This research uniquely applied stable isotope tracing to a bioretention system to investigate the transport of rainfall-runoff and the movement of soil water in a bioretention column. The stable isotope tracing method is helpful for determining the transport process of water and is expected to enhance our understanding of bioretention systems. The ratio of the event rainfall-runoff and the pre-event soil water in the bottom outflow of bioretention columns was calculated by the stable isotope bivariate mixing model based on the oxygen and hydrogen stable isotopic data from continuous testing in the discharge of bioretention column. The time-varying proportion of event water and pre-event water in the hydrographic curve reveals that the outflow process of soil water is divided into three stages. In the early stage, all the outflow was soil water, accounting for about 6–13% of the total outflow. In the middle stage, the proportion of soil water rapidly decreased from 100% to 20% within a few minutes. In the later stage, the soil water proportion decreased slowly from 20% to 0%. The outflow of soil water accounted for more than 36% of the total outflow and decreased with the extension of the drought period. Soil water is a critical part of the bottom outflow of bioretention columns, and the influence of soil water on the hydrological effect of bioretention columns cannot be ignored.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Urban Water Management)
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Open AccessArticle
Numerical Investigation of Different Stepped Spillway Geometries over a Mild Slope for Safe Operation Using Multi-Phase Model
by
Binaya Raj Pandey, Megh Raj K C, Brian Crookston and Gerald Zenz
Water 2024, 16(11), 1635; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111635 - 6 Jun 2024
Abstract
The appropriate design and operation of spillways are critical for dam safety. To enhance design practices and gain insights into flow hydraulics, both experimental and numerical modeling are commonly employed. In this study, we conducted a numerical investigation of flow over a mildly
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The appropriate design and operation of spillways are critical for dam safety. To enhance design practices and gain insights into flow hydraulics, both experimental and numerical modeling are commonly employed. In this study, we conducted a numerical investigation of flow over a mildly sloping (1V:3H) stepped spillway with various step geometries using a multi-phase mixture model with dispersed interface tracking in ANSYS Fluent. The model was validated against experimental data from Utah State University, focusing on water surface profiles over the crest, velocities, and air concentrations. The validated numerical model was used to simulate flow over different step geometries (i.e., 0.2 m H uniform Step, 0.1 m H uniform step, non-uniform steps, adverse slope steps, and stepped pool) for a range of discharges from 0.285 m3/s/m to 1.265 m3/s/m. While flow depths over the crest and velocities in the chute compared well with experimental results, air concentrations exhibited some deviation, indicating numerical limitations of the solver. The shift in the location of the inception point was found to be mainly influenced by a higher flow rate than the different design configurations over an identical mild slope. The downstream non-linear flow velocity curve with different flow rates indicated less effectiveness of the step roughness over a high flow rate as a result of the reduction in relative roughness. The theoretical velocity ratio indicated the least reduction in downstream velocity with the stepped pooled spillway due to the formation of a “stagnant pool”. A higher negative-pressure region due to flow separation at the vertical face of the steps was obtained by adverse slope steps, which shows that the risk of cavitation is higher over the adverse slope step spillway. Turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) was found to be higher for uniform 0.2 m H steps due to the strong mixing of flow over the steps. The least TKE was found at the steps of the stepped pool spillway due to the formation of a “stagnant pool”. Uniform 0.2 m H steps achieved the maximum energy dissipation efficiency, whereas the stepped pool spillway obtained the least energy dissipation efficiency, introducing higher flow velocity at the stilling basin with a higher residual head. The adverse slope and non-uniform steps were found to be more effective than the uniform 0.1 m H steps and stepped pool spillway. The application of uniform steps of higher drop height and length could achieve higher TKE over the steps, reducing the directional flow velocity, which reduces the risk of potential damage.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue CFD Modelling of Turbulent Free Surface Flows)
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Open AccessArticle
Study on the Impact of Closed Coal Mines on Groundwater in the Panlong River Basin (Shangdong Province, China) Based on Sulfur and Oxygen Isotopes
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Hao Chen, Hongnian Chen, Feng Zhang, Zhantao Han, Huijian Shi, Jia Meng, Qiyan Feng and Di Chen
Water 2024, 16(11), 1634; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111634 - 6 Jun 2024
Abstract
To deeply investigate the impact of closed coal mines on groundwater sulfate contamination in the Panlong River basin, Zaozhuang, Shandong Province, China, the hydrochemical characteristics and controlling factors of groundwater were analyzed based on 64 surface water and groundwater samples. The sources of
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To deeply investigate the impact of closed coal mines on groundwater sulfate contamination in the Panlong River basin, Zaozhuang, Shandong Province, China, the hydrochemical characteristics and controlling factors of groundwater were analyzed based on 64 surface water and groundwater samples. The sources of sulfate contamination were identified by sulfur and oxygen isotope analysis. The results indicate that the sulfate content in the pore groundwater exceeds the Standard for Groundwater Quality (China) Category III (250 mg/L), with a maximum content of 666.2 mg/L. Specifically, the exceedance rate of sulfate in pore water near the western boundary of the Taozao coal field is directly related to mine water. The exceedance rate of sulfate in karst groundwater is 28%, peaking at 1131 mg/L, and is mainly distributed outside the western boundary of the Taozao coalfield and near the Dingzhuang water source in the southeast of the coalfield, indicating a significant influence from high-sulfate mine water in the coal-bearing strata. The sulfur and oxygen isotope differences are significant between surface water, mine water, karst water, and pore water. Through Bayesian end-member analysis, it was determined that 40–83% of sulfate in the downstream pore water of the Taozao coal field originated from mine water, while 48–86% of the sulfate in the karst water originated from mine water, which greatly affects the groundwater in the western and southeastern parts of the Taozao coalfield. Therefore, measures should be taken as soon as possible to control the risk of sulfate pollution of neighboring groundwater, especially karst groundwater, by mine water from closed coal mines.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Hydrogeology)
Open AccessArticle
Development of a Lightweight Floating Object Detection Algorithm
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Rundong Xian, Lijun Tang and Shenbo Liu
Water 2024, 16(11), 1633; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111633 - 6 Jun 2024
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YOLOv5 is currently one of the mainstream algorithms for object detection. In this paper, we propose the FRL-YOLO model specifically for river floating object detection. The algorithm integrates the Fasternet block into the C3 module, conducting convolutions only on a subset of input
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YOLOv5 is currently one of the mainstream algorithms for object detection. In this paper, we propose the FRL-YOLO model specifically for river floating object detection. The algorithm integrates the Fasternet block into the C3 module, conducting convolutions only on a subset of input channels to reduce computational load. Simultaneously, it effectively captures spatial features, incorporates reparameterization techniques into the feature extraction network, and introduces the RepConv design to enhance model training efficiency. To further optimize network performance, the ACON-C activation function is employed. Finally, by employing a structured non-destructive pruning approach, redundant channels in the model are trimmed, significantly reducing the model’s volume. Experimental results indicate that the algorithm achieves an average precision value (mAP) of 79.3%, a 0.4% improvement compared to yolov5s. The detection speed on the NVIDIA GeForce RTX 4070 graphics card reaches 623.5 fps/s, a 22.8% increase over yolov5s. The improved model is compressed to a volume of 2 MB, representing only 14.7% of yolov5s.
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Open AccessArticle
Reflection of Daily, Seasonal and Interannual Variations in Run-off of a Small River in the Water Isotopic Composition (δ2H, δ18O): A Case of the Ala-Archa Mountain River Basin with Glaciation (Kyrgyzstan, Central Asia)
by
Igor Tokarev, Evgeny Yakovlev, Sergey Erokhin, Tamara Tuzova, Sergey Druzhinin and Andrey Puchkov
Water 2024, 16(11), 1632; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111632 - 6 Jun 2024
Abstract
Small intermountain river basins are most suitable for developing new methods to estimate water balance due to their well-defined catchment boundaries, relatively rapid runoff processes, and accessible landscapes for study. In general terms, dissecting the hydrograph of a small mountain river requires calibration
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Small intermountain river basins are most suitable for developing new methods to estimate water balance due to their well-defined catchment boundaries, relatively rapid runoff processes, and accessible landscapes for study. In general terms, dissecting the hydrograph of a small mountain river requires calibration of the flow model against multi-year data sets, including (a) glacier mass balance and snow water content, (b) radiation balance calculation, (c) estimation of the groundwater contribution, and (d) water discharge measurements. The minimum primary data set is limited to the precipitation and temperature distributions at the catchment. This approach postulates that the conditions for the formation of all components of river flow are known in advance. It is reduced to calculating the dynamic balance between precipitation (input part) and runoff, ablation, and evaporation (output part). In practice, accurately accounting for the inflow and outflow components of the balance, as well as the impact of regulating reservoirs, can be a challenging task that requires significant effort and expense, even for the extensively researched catchments. Our studies indicate the potential benefits of an approach based on one-time, but detailed, observations of stable isotope composition, temperature, and water chemistry, in addition to standard datasets. This paper presents the results of the 2022–2023 work conducted in the basin of the small mountain river Ala-Archa, located on the northern slope of the Kyrgyz Range in Tien-Shan, which was chosen as an example due to its well-studied nature. Our approach could identify previously unknown factors of flow formation and assess the time and effectiveness of work in similar conditions.
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Open AccessReview
Review of the Mechanism and Methodology of Water Demand Forecasting in the Socio-Economic System
by
Xudong Fang, Jinhua Liu, Min Zhou, Hui Zhang and Jing Zhao
Water 2024, 16(11), 1631; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111631 - 6 Jun 2024
Abstract
As global water scarcity becomes increasingly acute, water demand forecasting has emerged as a critical component in water resource management and planning. This review aims to comprehensively survey and analyze the current state of research, existing issues, and development trends in the field
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As global water scarcity becomes increasingly acute, water demand forecasting has emerged as a critical component in water resource management and planning. This review aims to comprehensively survey and analyze the current state of research, existing issues, and development trends in the field of water demand forecasting. Presently, there are numerous studies on water demand forecasting; however, most of the forecasting results tend to be overestimated. On the mechanistic level, research has gradually shifted from considering single factors to accounting for the complex influences of multiple factors. This paper summarizes the mechanism of water demand from the three levels of agriculture, industry, and residential life. In terms of forecasting methods, various techniques have been explored and applied, particularly new methods based on artificial intelligence and machine learning, which have demonstrated significant advantages in improving forecasting accuracy and handling nonlinear relationships. Despite the notable progress and practical achievements in water demand forecasting, several challenges and issues remain. Future research should focus on diversifying methodologies, comprehensively considering multiple influencing factors, further refining forecasting models and technical systems, strengthening uncertainty and risk management, and emphasizing practical applications and policy guidance.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Socio-Economics of Water Resources Management)
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Open AccessArticle
Conceptual Model Based on Groundwater Dynamics in the Northern Croatian Dinaric Region at the Transition from the Deep Karst and Fluviokarst
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Ivana Boljat, Josip Terzić, Željko Duić, Jasmina Lukač Reberski and Ana Selak
Water 2024, 16(11), 1630; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111630 - 6 Jun 2024
Abstract
The Dinaric karst in the north differs from the rest of the karst in Croatia in terms of karstification depth. The infiltrating precipitation drains in cascades from deeply karstified mountainous areas to the shallow or fluviokarst, forming the tributaries of the Kupa River.
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The Dinaric karst in the north differs from the rest of the karst in Croatia in terms of karstification depth. The infiltrating precipitation drains in cascades from deeply karstified mountainous areas to the shallow or fluviokarst, forming the tributaries of the Kupa River. Time series analyses were conducted on a 5-year dataset to elucidate the hydrogeological conceptual model of the area and clarify disparate findings from tracer tests under varying hydrological conditions. The flow duration curve, autocorrelation functions, and recession curves were used to evaluate the spring discharge variability, the karstification degree, and the karst aquifer’s size. The crosscorrelation function and temperature dynamics were employed to assess the spring’s response to recharge and the hydrogeological system behavior. Comparative analysis with previous studies was conducted to contextualize the obtained results. The research outcomes delineated several key findings: (i) the deep karst zone is less developed than the shallow karst zone; (ii) groundwater exchange is significantly faster in shallow karst; (iii) groundwater divides in the Kapela Mountain are zonal; (iv) the homogenization of groundwater occurs during periods of high water levels; (v) fast water exchange transpires without concurrent groundwater temperature homogenization; and (vi) a definition of the boundary between deep and fluviokarst in Croatia.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Hydrogeology and Hydrochemistry: Challenges and Prospects)
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Open AccessArticle
Operating Energy Needed for Desalination Systems in Cogeneration Plants
by
Obida Zeitoun
Water 2024, 16(11), 1629; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111629 - 6 Jun 2024
Abstract
This study investigated the energy requirement for running desalination units coupled to cogeneration plants. Various cogeneration systems were explored using power- and heat-allocated approaches. The specific work and heat necessary for operating different desalination systems were determined. The investigation revealed that the specific
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This study investigated the energy requirement for running desalination units coupled to cogeneration plants. Various cogeneration systems were explored using power- and heat-allocated approaches. The specific work and heat necessary for operating different desalination systems were determined. The investigation revealed that the specific work and heat remain consistent regardless of the desalination daily capacity. It was observed that the energy demand for operating a desalination system mainly relies on power plant efficiency. The investigation revealed that the energy demand for a plain multi-effect desalination system was lower than that for multi-effect desalination with thermal vapor compression. Additionally, the energy requirement for a multi-effect desalination system with preheaters was lower than that for plain multi-effect desalination. Comparisons also indicated that the energy demand of multi-stage flash exceeds that of different multi-effect desalination systems. Based on the primary thermal energy input, a universal performance ratio was used to evaluate the desalination unit performance. Furthermore, a new correlation was proposed to predict the universal performance ratio.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water and Energy Synergies)
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Open AccessArticle
Effect of Green Infrastructure with Different Woody Plant Root Systems on the Reduction of Runoff Nitrogen
by
Bei Zhang, Liang Chen and Taolve Gao
Water 2024, 16(11), 1628; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111628 - 6 Jun 2024
Abstract
Rainfall-runoff nitrogen (N) pollution has emerged as the primary source of water contamination due to rapid urbanization. Green infrastructure (GI), as the representative measure, is widely used in controlling N pollution in runoff. However, there is limited research on the impact of woody
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Rainfall-runoff nitrogen (N) pollution has emerged as the primary source of water contamination due to rapid urbanization. Green infrastructure (GI), as the representative measure, is widely used in controlling N pollution in runoff. However, there is limited research on the impact of woody plants on N reduction in GIs. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the influence and relationship of Sophora japonica (with tap root) and Malus baccata (with fibrous root) on N removal in GIs. Utilizing the advanced root analysis software WinRHIZO (version 4.0b), a meticulous examination of the morphological traits of plant roots was conducted. The findings unveiled a striking contrast between the root systems of two species: S. japonica primarily boasts a vertically oriented root configuration, whereas M. baccata’s root system is characterized by an extensively lateral, or horizontal, growth pattern. Specifically, in comparison to S. japonica, the horizontal roots of M. baccata demonstrated a substantial superiority, with their total root length measuring 10.95 times longer, the surface area spanning 6.25 times wider, and the cumulative volume being 3.93 times greater. For comparing the load reduction rates on runoff NH3-N, NO3-N, and TN of the different root morphologies’ GIs, S. japonica GI had the highest purification effect on the three pollutants, and the average load reduction rates of three pollutants reached 67.74%, 33.83%, and 38.96%, respectively, which were 11.42%, 27.46%, and 6.16% higher than those of the control. The variance contribution rate of vertical root and horizontal root characteristics on runoff nitrogen load reduction accounted for 86.47% of the total root contribution rate. The volume of vertical roots emerged as the most crucial characteristic factor affecting the reduction of N load.
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(This article belongs to the Section Urban Water Management)
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Open AccessArticle
Antibiotics in Wastewater Treatment Plants in Tangshan: Perspectives on Temporal Variation, Residents’ Use and Ecological Risk Assessment
by
Zhuo Dong, Jian Hu, Pengjie Wang, Gengtao Han and Zheng Jia
Water 2024, 16(11), 1627; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111627 - 6 Jun 2024
Abstract
In 2023, this study monitored nine types of antibiotics in the influent and effluent of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in the urban and suburban areas of Tangshan. The total antibiotics concentration detected in influent WWTPs was highest in winter, followed by spring, summer,
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In 2023, this study monitored nine types of antibiotics in the influent and effluent of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in the urban and suburban areas of Tangshan. The total antibiotics concentration detected in influent WWTPs was highest in winter, followed by spring, summer, and autumn. The antibiotics concentration in influent and effluent urban WWTPs was higher than that in the suburban WWTPs in spring, summer, and winter, while the trend was reversed in autumn. Roxithromycin and oxytetracycline had a risk quotient (RQ) value of ≥0.1 in the effluent of WWTPs in winter, indicating that they are medium-risk antibiotics that pose a risk to the aquatic ecosystem after discharge. In the study area, the per capita pollution load of antibiotics was highest in spring, summer, and autumn for sulfamethoxazole, while it was highest in winter for ofloxacin. In the urban area, the use of roxithromycin, sulfamethoxazole, sulfamethoxazole, and ofloxacin was highest in spring, summer, autumn, and winter, respectively, while in suburban areas, the use of sulfamethoxazole, norfloxacin, sulfamethoxazole, and ofloxacin was highest during the same period. The use of antibiotics in the urban area was one order of magnitude higher than that in suburban areas, indicating a possible overuse of antibiotics in urban environments.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impacts of Environmental Change and Human Activities on Aquatic Ecosystems)
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Open AccessArticle
Photocatalytic Degradation of Algal Organic Matter Using TiO2/UV and Persulfate/UV
by
Luan de Souza Leite, Maria Teresa Hoffmann, Danilo Vitorino dos Santos and Luiz Antonio Daniel
Water 2024, 16(11), 1626; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111626 - 6 Jun 2024
Abstract
Eutrophication in water reservoirs releases algal organic matter (AOM), a key precursor to the formation of disinfection by-products (DBPs) during the disinfection process. Typical drinking water treatment is not efficient for AOM removal, and advanced treatments are necessary for the removal of residual
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Eutrophication in water reservoirs releases algal organic matter (AOM), a key precursor to the formation of disinfection by-products (DBPs) during the disinfection process. Typical drinking water treatment is not efficient for AOM removal, and advanced treatments are necessary for the removal of residual AOM before chlorination. UV-based technology with PS and TiO2 is widely used as a pre-oxidation step in water treatment; however, no publications have focused on them for AOM degradation. In this context, this work investigated the effect of oxidant concentration (0.1 to 0.5 g∙L−1) and pH (6 to 10) on AOM degradation with TiO2/UV and persulfate (PS)/UV using response surface methodology. In general, PS/UV was more effective in removing protein, while TiO2/UV was more effective in carbohydrate degradation. TiO2/UV removals varied from 27 to 57% for protein and from 48 to 86% for carbohydrates. The optimal condition (57% for protein and 86% for carbohydrates) was obtained using 0.5 g∙L−1 TiO2 at pH 10. PS/UV removals varied from 33 to 81% for protein and from 24 to 53% for carbohydrates. The optimal condition (81% for protein and 53% for carbohydrates) was obtained using 0.5 g∙L−1 PS concentration at pH 8. Degradation kinetics showed a good fit to the pseudo-first-order model (R2 > 95%) for both processes. The DBP formation reductions observed with TiO2/UV—trihalomethane (THM) (85 to 86%) and chloral hydrate (CH) (94 to 96%)—were similar to the efficiencies observed for PS/UV—THM (87 to 89%) and CH (83 to 88%). These results show the efficiency of UV-based technology for AOM degradation and the control of DBP formation.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Photocatalysis in Water/Wastewater Treatment: Latest Advances and Prospects)
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Open AccessArticle
Denitrification Mechanism of Heterotrophic Aerobic Denitrifying Pseudomonas hunanensis Strain DC-2 and Its Application in Aquaculture Wastewater
by
Xinya Sui, Xingqiang Wu, Bangding Xiao, Chunbo Wang and Cuicui Tian
Water 2024, 16(11), 1625; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111625 - 6 Jun 2024
Abstract
A novel heterotrophic aerobic denitrifying Pseudomonas hunanensis strain DC-2 was screened from the sediments of Lake Dianchi and identified with high nitrification/denitrification ability. Within 30 h, the removal efficiency of ammonium-N and nitrate-N could reach 98.8% and 88.4%, respectively. The results of the
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A novel heterotrophic aerobic denitrifying Pseudomonas hunanensis strain DC-2 was screened from the sediments of Lake Dianchi and identified with high nitrification/denitrification ability. Within 30 h, the removal efficiency of ammonium-N and nitrate-N could reach 98.8% and 88.4%, respectively. The results of the single-factor experiments indicated that strain DC-2 exhibited excellent denitrification ability under the conditions of using sodium citrate as the nitrogen source, with an initial pH of 7, a C/N ratio of 10, and a temperature of 30 °C. Nitrogen balance experiments suggested that this strain removed N mainly via assimilation. Moreover, the N removal pathway was explored by genome and enzymatic assays, and a complex nitrogen metabolism pathway was established, including heterotrophic nitrification-aerobic denitrification (HN-AD), assimilatory reduction of nitrate (ANRA), and ammonia assimilation. Additionally, strain DC-2 was immobilized into particles for denitrification, demonstrating excellent efficacy in continuous total nitrogen removal (84.8% for TN). Hence, strain DC-2 demonstrated significant potential in treating real aquaculture wastewater.
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(This article belongs to the Section Wastewater Treatment and Reuse)
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Demonstration of Proactive Algaecide Treatments Targeting Overwintering Cyanobacteria in Sediments of an Urban Pond
by
Alyssa Calomeni-Eck, Andrew McQueen, Ciera Kinley-Baird, Elizabeth Smith, Benjamin Growcock, Katlynn Decker, Schad Hampton, Anthony Stahl, Marvin Boyer and Gerard Clyde, Jr.
Water 2024, 16(11), 1624; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111624 - 6 Jun 2024
Abstract
Most cyanobacteria that form harmful algal blooms (HABs) in inland waterbodies can overwinter in sediments. This field demonstration within an urban pond was conducted to bolster a database on the novel use of algaecide treatments to proactively target overwintering cyanobacteria located in sediments
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Most cyanobacteria that form harmful algal blooms (HABs) in inland waterbodies can overwinter in sediments. This field demonstration within an urban pond was conducted to bolster a database on the novel use of algaecide treatments to proactively target overwintering cyanobacteria located in sediments prior to HAB formation. In March 2023, a peroxide-based algaecide was applied to sediments of a water feature located in urban Kansas City, Kansas, and cyanobacteria responses were measured over subsequent weeks and months. Multiple lines of evidence were used to discern the impacts of proactive treatments on overwintering cells in sediments and HAB severity throughout the growing season. Although results of the measured cyanobacterial responses were mixed, three of five lines of evidence indicated proactive algaecide treatments were effective at decreasing the transfer of cyanobacteria to the water column and HAB severity during months when HABs tended to occur. Microcystin concentrations immediately post-treatment (hours) remained at the analytical detection limit (0.10 µg/L) and were below USEPA risk-based thresholds, highlighting the benefits of application prior to the exponential growth phase of toxin-producing cyanobacteria. These results expand the dataset and methodology for field-scale proactive algaecide applications targeting overwintering cyanobacterial cells in sediment to mitigate and delay HAB development.
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(This article belongs to the Topic Natural Hazards and Environmental Challenges in the Anthropocene Age)
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Research on Intelligent Chemical Dosing System for Phosphorus Removal in Wastewater Treatment Plants
by
Xi Lu, Song Huang, Haichen Liu, Fengwei Yang, Ting Zhang and Xinyu Wan
Water 2024, 16(11), 1623; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111623 - 6 Jun 2024
Abstract
Whether the phosphorus removal chemical in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) can be accurately dosed not only affects the compliance of the effluent total phosphorus but also has a huge impact on sludge production and energy consumption during the wastewater treatment process. For the
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Whether the phosphorus removal chemical in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) can be accurately dosed not only affects the compliance of the effluent total phosphorus but also has a huge impact on sludge production and energy consumption during the wastewater treatment process. For the effluent from the secondary sedimentation tank of a wastewater treatment plant in southern China, based on experimental screening of the optimal pH value, chemical types and concentrations of chemicals, coagulation time, etc., a dynamic dosage prediction feedforward model for chemical phosphorus removal agents in the effluent from the secondary sedimentation tank of the WWTPs was developed to predict the most economical dosage of the chemicals. Meanwhile, combined with the adaptive fuzzy neural network P feedback control algorithm, dynamic real-time control of chemical dosing was achieved. Through micro-control design, a software model for signal collection and feedback in a specific phosphorus removal scenario was formed, and an automatic control system for chemical dosing was ultimately developed for a WWTP in a city in southern China. After stable operation for two months, the system achieved a 100% compliance rate for effluent total phosphorus (TP) concentration and a 67% improvement in effluent stability, helping the wastewater treatment plant achieve stable and precise control of the phosphorus removal process in the secondary sedimentation tank effluent, which is conducive to further promoting its implementation of low-carbon pathways.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Occurrence, Risk Assessment and Removal of Emerging Contaminants in Aquatic Environment)
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